A CONCEPTUAL REVIEW OF THE EFFECTS OF TRADE PROTECTIONISM ON MARITIME ECONOMICS AND LOGISTICS
Keywords:
Economic growth, logistic transition, port composition, trade protectionismAbstract
In the last three decades, in particular, freight and container transport have grown rapidly worldwide. Protectionism, economic growth and the rising global economy have grown tremendously, and container transport has suffered adversely as a result. The issues facing the environment, economics and culture with regards to the sustainability of maritime logistics or transport must be considered. The trade-offs from direct cost of transport and credibility differ according to the trade in the country’s goods and logistics, which can reduce potential to diversify among temporary and value-added products in developed countries’. This study aims to conduct a conceptual review of the effects of trade protectionism on logistics transition, port composition, and economic growth. Based on this, this study will propose a framework in which protectionism, logistic transition, port composition and economic growth research can more effectively utilized. However, effects of trade protectionism on logistic transition, port composition, and economic growth, should be further examined using the proposed growth models.
References
Aggarwal, V., & Evenett, S. J. (2013). A fragmenting global economy: a weakened WTO, MEGA FTAS, and Murky Protectionism (Discussion Paper No. 9781). Centre for Economic Policy Research. Retrieved from https:// repec.cepr.org/ repec/cpr/ceprdp/ DP9781.pdf
Aharonovitz, M. C. S., Vieira, J. G. V., & Suyama, S. S. (2018). How logistics performance is affected by supply chain relationships. The international Journal of Logistics Management, 29(1), 285-307.
Ahmad, A. U., Ismail, S., Jakada, A. H., Farouq, I. S., Muhammad, A. A., Mustapha, U. A., & Muhammad, A. (2020a). A heterogeneous relationships between urbanization, energy consumption, economic growth on environmental degradation: Panel Study of Malaysia and Selected ASEAN+ 3 Countries. Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques, 8(1), 573-581.
Ahmad, A. U., Ismail, S., Jakada, A. H., Farouq, I. S., Muhammad, A. A., Mustapha, U. A., & Muhammad, A. (2020b). A heterogeneous relationships between urbanization, energy consumption, economic growth on environmental degradation: Panel Study of Malaysia and Selected ASEAN+ 3 Countries. Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques, 8(1), 573-581.
Ahmad, A. U., Loganathan, N., Streimikiene, D., & Hassan, A. A. G. (2018). Financial instability, trade openness and energy prices on leading African countries sustainable growth. Economic Computation and Economic Cybernetics Studies and Research, 52(1), 127-142.
Aizenman, J., & Marion, N. P. (1993). Policy uncertainty, persistence and growth. Review of international economics, 1(2), 145-163.
Alege, P. O., & Osabuohien, E. S. (2015). Trade-exchange rate nexus in sub-saharan african countries: Evidence from panel cointegration analysis. Foreign Trade Review, 50(3), 151-167. https://doi. org/10.1177/0015732515589440
Andersen, J. E., Larch, M., & Yotov, Y. V. (2020). Transitional growth and trade with frictions: A structural estimation framework. Economic Journal, 130(630), 1583–1607.
Arrow, K., (1962). Economic welfare and the allocation of resources for invention. The Rate and direction of inventive activity: economic and social factors the rate and direction of inventive activity: Economic and social factors. Princeton University Press, (pp. 609–626).
Aschauer, D. A., (1989). Is public expenditure productive? Journal of Monetary Economics. 23(2), 177–200
Balliauw, M., Kort, P. M., & Zhang, A. (2019). Capacity investment decisions of two competing ports under uncertainty: A strategic real options approach. Transportation research part B: Methodological, 122, 249- 264.
Banister, D., & Berechman, Y. (2001). Transport investment and the promotion of economic growth. Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3), 209–218.
Behar, A., & Venables, A. J., (2011). Transport costs and international trade. In Palma, A.d., Lindsey, R., Quinet, E., Vickerman, R. (Eds.), A Handbook of Transport Economics. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Benedyk, I. V., & Peeta, S. (2018). A binary probit model to analyze freight transportation decision-maker perspectives for container shipping on the Northern Sea Route. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 20(3), 358-374.
Benhabib, J., & Mark. M. S (1994). The role of human capital in economic development: evidence from aggregate cross-country data. Journal of Monetary Economics, 34, 2(October), 143–173.
Bottasso, A., Conti, M., Ferrari, C., Merk, O., & Tei, A. (2013). The impact of port throughput on local employment: Evidence from a panel of European regions. Transport Policy, 27, 32–38.
Bown, C. P., & Crowley, M. A. (2014). Emerging economies, trade policy, and macroeconomic shocks. Journal of Development Economics, 111, 261-273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jdeveco.2014.05.001
Briguglio, L. P., Vella, M., & Moncada, S. (2019). Economic growth and the concept of diminishing marginal governance effect. Journal of Economic Studies.
Brox, J. A., & Fader, C. A., (2005). Infrastructure investment and Canadian manufacturing productivity. Applied Economics, 37(11), 1247–1256.
Burtless, G. (1995). International trade and the rise in earnings inequality. Journal of economic literature, 33(2), 800-816.
Caballe, J., & M. S., Smtos. (1993). On Endogenous Growth with Physical and Human Capita l. Journal of Political Economy, 101, 6(December), 1042–1067.
Calderon, C., & Serv´en, L. (2010). Infrastructure and economic development in sub-saharan africa. Journal of African Economies 19, 13–87
Carstens, A. (2018). Global market structures and the high price of protectionism. Paper presented at The Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City’s 42nd Economic Policy Symposium. Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Retrieved from https://www.bis. org/ speeches/sp180825.htm
Castillo, C., Molina, R., Campos, A., & Garcia-Valdecasas, J. (2020). Application of rainflow techniques to the design and operation of port infrastructure. Coastal Engineering Proceedings, (36v), 41-41.
Cavallaro, E., & Villani, I. (2021). Real income convergence and the patterns of financial integration in the EU. The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, 56, 101337.
Çelebi, D. (2019). The role of logistics performance in promoting trade. Maritime, Economics and Logistics, Logist. 1–17.
Chang, Y. T., Shin, S. H., & Lee, P. T. W. (2014). Economic impact of port sectors on south African economy: an input–output analysis. Transport Policy, 35, 333–340.
Cheong, I., & Tongzon, J. (2018). The economic impact of a rise in US trade protectionism on East Asia. Journal of Korea Trade, 22(3), 265-279.
Cong, L. Z., Zhang, D., Wang, M. L., Xu, H. F., & Li, L. (2020). The role of ports in the economic development of port cities: panel evidence from China. Transport Policy, 90, 13–21.
Constantinescu, C., Mattoo, A., & Ruta, M. (2015). The global trade slowdown: Cyclical or structural? (IMF Working Papers No. WP/15/6). Retrieved from https:// www. imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ wp/2015/wp1506. pdf
Copeland, B., Tower, E., & Webb, M. (1989). Quota wars and tariff wars. Oxford Economic Papers 82 (October), 774-88.
Costa, R., Dhingra, S., & Machin, S. (2019). Trade and worker deskilling (NBER working paper No. 25919). NBER Program(s): International trade and investment. Retrieved from https:// www.nber. org/papers/w25919
Curran, L., & Eckhardt, J. (2018). Strategic responses of trade-dependent firms to rising trade protectionism. In Würzburg International Business Forum International Business Conference 2018, (pp. 93).
Dabachi, U. M., Mahmood, S., Ahmad, A. U., Ismail, S., Farouq, I. S., Jakada, A. H., & Kabiru, K. (2020). Energy consumption, en¬ergy price, energy intensity environmental degradation, and economic growth nexus in African OPEC countries: Evidence from simultaneous equations models. Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques, 8(1), 403-409.
Darlington, J., Guo, Y. K., To, H. W., & Yang, J. (1995, August). Parallel skeletons for structured composition. In Proceedings of the Fifth ACM SIGPLAN symposium on Principles and practice of parallel programming (pp. 19-28).
de Lima, D. P., Fioriolli, J. C., Padula, A. D., & Pumi, G. (2018). The impact of Chinese imports of soybean on port infrastructure in Brazil: A study based on the concept of the “Bullwhip Effect”. Journal of Commodity Markets, 9, 55-76.
de Vries, M. G. (1967). Trade and exchange policies for economic development. Finance and Development, 4(2), 111.
Deng, P., Lu, S., & Xiao, H., (2013) Evaluation of the relevance measure between ports and regional economy using structural equation modeling. Transport Policy, 27, 123–133.
DHL. (2018). The Resilience360 Annual Risk Report; DHL: Bonn, Germany.
Duzbaievna, S. M., Antoni, A., & Yessenzhigitova, R. (2019). The impact of port transport-logistics infrastructure and lpi for economic growth: on the example of landlocked countries. Pomorstvo, 33(1), 63- 75.
Eaton, J. E., Kortum, S., Neiman, B., & Romalis, J. (2016). Trade and the global recession. American Economic Review, 106(11), 3401–3438.
Erokhin, V. (2017). Self-sufficiency versus security: How trade protectionism challenges the sustainability of the food supply in Russia. Sustainability, 9(11), 1939.
Ferrari, C., Percoco, M., Tedeschi A. (2010) Ports and local development: evidence from Italy. International Journal of Transport Economics, 37(1), 9–30.
Financial times, US-China trade war Prompts Rethink on supply chains (year). Retrieved April 18, 2021, from https: //www. ft.com/content/03e4f016-aa9a-11e8-94bd-cba20d67390c
Fink, G. (1999). New protectionism in Central Europe. Exchange rate adjustment, customs tariffs and non-tariff measures.
Forbes. Beyond ‘Decoupling’: How China will reshape global trade in 2020. Retrieved April 18, 2021, from https://www.forbes. com/sites/siminamistreanu/2019/12/03/ beyond-decoupling-how-china-willreshape-global-trade-in-2020/#77973f0c65b7
Fosu, A., Getachew, Y., & Ziesemer, T. (2012). Optimal public investment, growth and consumption: Evidence from African countries. Brooks World Poverty Institute Working Paper, (pp. 164).
Fu, X., Tsui, K., Sampaio, B., & Tan, d.t.w. (2018). The impacts of airport activities on regional economy-An empirical analysis of New Zealand, 18–08. ITLS-WP-.
Gani, A. (2017). The logistics performance effect in international trade. The Asian Journal of Shipping and Logistics, 33(4), 279-288.
Gokcekus, O., & Tower, E. (1989). Does trade liberalization benefit old and young alike? Review of International Economics, 6 (February), 50-58.
Gripaios, P., & Gripaios, R. (1995) The impact of a port on its local economy: The case of Plymouth. Maritime Policy Management, 22(1), 13–23.
Grundke, R., & Moser, C. (2019). Hidden protectionism? Evidence from non-tariff barriers to trade in the United States. Journal of International Economics, 117, 143-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jinteco.2018.12.007
Gygli, S., Haelg, F., Potrafke, N., & Sturm, J.-E. (2019). The KOF globalization index – revisited. Review of International Organizations, 14(3), 543–574.
Halaszovich, T. F., & Kinra, A. (2018). The impact of distance, national transportation systems and logistics performance on fdi and international trade patterns: Results from Asian global value chains. transport policy.
Hammes, G., De Souza, E. D., Rodriguez, C. M. T., Millan, R. H. R., & Herazo, J. C. M. (2020). Evaluation of the reverse logistics performance in civil construction. Journal of Cleaner Production, 248, 119212.
Hathaway, O. A. (1998). Positive feedback: the impact of trade liberalization on industry demands for protection. International Organization, 52(3), 575-612.
He, D., Yin, Q., Zheng, M., & Gao, P. (2019). Transport and regional economic integration: evidence from the Chang-Zhu- Tan region in China. Transport policy, 79, 193–203.
Inbound Logistics. (2021) Tariffs Sting U.S. Supply Chains. Retrieved April 17, 2021, from https://www.inboundlogistics.com/ cms/article/tariffs-sting-us-supply-chains/
IRC. (2016). Understanding the weakness in global trade - What is the new normal? (ECB Occasional Paper, No. 178). European Central Bank (ECB), IRC Trade Task Force. Retrieved from https:// www.ecb.europa.eu/ pub/pdf/ scpops/ecbop178.en.pdf
Islam, N., (1995) Growth empirics: a panel data approach. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1127-1170.
Jaffee, D. (2019). Neoliberal urbanism as Strategic Coupling to global chains: Port infrastructure and the role of economic impact studies. Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, 37(1), 119-136.
Jakada, A. H., Mahmood, S., Ahmad, A. U., & Bambale, S. A. (2020b). Heterogeneous moderating influence of economic growth on financial development and environmental quality in Africa. Journal of Critical Reviews, 7(14), 127-133.
Jung B-M (2011) Economic contribution of ports to the local economies in Korea. The Asian Journal Shipping and Logistics, 27(1), 1–30.
Khan, S. A. R., Jian, C., Zhang, Y., Golpîra, H., Kumar, A., & Sharif, A. (2019). Environmental, social and economic growth indicators spur logistics performance: From the perspective of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation countries. Journal of Cleaner Production, 214, 1011-1023.
Kinra, A., Hald, K. S., Mukkamala, R. R., & Vatrapu, R. (2020). An unstructured big data approach for country logistics performance assessment in global supply chains. International Journal of Operations & Production management, 40(4), 439-458.
Kinsey, J. (1981). The economic impact of the port of Liverpool on the economy of Merseyside—using a multiplier approach. Geoforum, 12(4), 331–347.
Kinzius, L., Sandkamp, A., & Yalcin, E. (2019). Trade protection and the role of non-tariff barriers. Review of World Economics, 155, 603-643. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10290- 019-00341-6
Kodongo, O., & Ojah, K. (2016). Does infrastructure really explain economic growth in SubSaharan Africa? Review of Development Finance, 6(2), 105–125.
Y. D., Shuvalov, D. V., & Yermoshin, N. A. (2021). Transportation and logistics system for preparing areas to unload material resources in the absence of port infrastructure, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 1047, No. 1, pp. 012016). IOP Publishing.
Krueger, A. O. (1974). The political economy of the rent seeking society. American Economic Review, 64(June), 291-303.
Krueger, A.O. (1983). Trade and employment in developing countries: Volume 3 Synthesis and Conclusions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kus¸tepeli, Y., Gülcan, Y., & Akgüngor, ¨ S., (2012). Transportation infrastructure investment, growth and international trade in Turkey. Applied Economics, 44(20), 2619–2629.
Lai, K.-H., Pang, Y., Wong, C.W., Lun, Y.V., & Ng, Y. E. (2019). Are trade and transport logistics activities mutually reinforcing? Some empirical evidences from ASEAN countries. Journal of Shipping and Trade, 4 (1), 2.
Lakshmanan, T. (2011) The broader economic consequences of transport infrastructure investments. Journal Transport Geography, 19(1), 1–12.
Lall, S. V. (2007). Infrastructure and regional growth, growth dynamics and policy relevance for India. The Annals of Regional Science, 41(3), 581–599.
Lee, P. T. W., Lam, J. S. L., Lin, C. W., Hu, K. C., & Cheong, I. (2018). Developing the fifth-generation port concept model: an empirical test. The International Journal of Logistics Management, 29(3), 1098-1120.
Lehmann, S. & O’Rourke, K. H. (2011). The structure of protection and growth in the late nineteenth century. Review of Economics and Statistics, 93(2), 606–616.
Lewis, L. T., & Monarch, R. (2016). Causes of the global trade slowdown (IFDP Working Papers, No. 2016-11-10). Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. https://doi.org/10.17016/2573- 2129.25
Li, C., & Whalley, J. (2021). Trade protectionism and US manufacturing employment. Economic Modelling, 96, 353-361.
Li, Q., Yan, R., Zhang, L., & Yan, B. (2021). Empirical study on improving international dry port competitiveness based on logistics supply chain integration: evidence from China. The International Journal of Logis¬tics Management. https://doi.org/10.1108/ IJLM-06-2020-0256
Lin, H., & Qixiang, W. (2020). Exploring the Mediation Effect of Logistics Performance on Economic Growth. Solid State Technology, 63(4), 5858-5869.
Liu, M. (2020). Research on Port Infrastructure, Port Efficiency and Urban Trade Development. Journal of Coastal Research, 115(SI), 220-222.
Logistics Management. (2021b). Lose-lose’ trade war threatens 1.5 million jobs, $186 billion in economic activity, new study shows. Re¬trieved April 18, 2021, from https://www. logisticsmgmt.com/article/lose_lose_trade_ war_threatens_ 1.5_million_jobs_186_bil¬lion_in_economic_acti
Logistics Management. (2021). Ocean carrier trends: Containing capacity while remaining poised for Growth. Retrieved April 18, 2021, from https://www.logisticsmgmt.com/ article/ocean_carrier_trends_containing_ capacity_while_ remaining_poised_for_ growth
Longaray, A., Ensslin, L., Ensslin, S., Alves, G., Dutra, A., & Munhoz, P. (2018). Using MCDA to evaluate the performance of the logistics process in public hospitals: the case of a Brazilian teaching hospital. International Transactions in Operational Research, 25(1), 133-156.
Lucas, R., E., Jr. (1988). “On the Mechanics of Economic Development ,“ Journal of Monetatary Economics, 22, 1(July), 3A2.
Luttermann, S., Kotzab, H., & Halaszovich, T. (2020). The impact of logistics performance on exports, imports and foreign direct investment. World Review of Intermodal Transportation Research, 9(1), 27-46.
Malthus, Thomas R. (1798). An Essay on the Principle of Population, London, W. Pickering, 1986.
Maparu, T. S., & Mazumder, T. N. (2017). Transport infrastructure, economic development and urbanization in India (1990–2011): is there any causal relationship? Transport Research. Policy Practice, 100, 319–336
Markusen, J. R., Melvin, J.R., Kaempfer, W.H. and Maskus, K.E. (1995). International trade: Theory and evidence. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Marzi, B. (1998). Information support to transport-logistic infrastructure in the port of Koper. Promet-Traffic & Transportation, 10(5- 6), 315-318.
Michaels, R. J. (1999). The governance of transmission operators. Energy Logistics, 20, 233.
Miller, N. J., & Tsoukis, C. (2001). On the optimality of public capital for long-run economic growth: Evidence from panel data. Applied Economics 33(9), 1117–1129.
Moons, K., Waeyenbergh, G., & Pintelon, L. (2019). Measuring the logistics performance of internal hospital supply chains–Aliterature study. Omega, 82, 205- 217.
Morgan, T. R., Tokman, M., Richey, R. G., & Defee, C. (2018). Resource commitment and sustainability: A reverse logistics performance process model. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 48(2), 164-184.
Munim, Z. H., & Schramm, H. J. (2018). The impacts of port infrastructure and logistics performance on economic growth: The mediating role of seaborne trade. Journal of Shipping and Trade, 3(1), 1-19.
Nader, R., Greider, W., Atwood, M., Choate, P., Shiva, V., Ritchie, M., & Heredia, C. (1993). The case against” free trade”: GATT, NAFTA, and the globalization of corporate power (Vol. 49). North Atlantic Books.
Nam, C. H. (1993). Protectionist US Trade Policy and Korean Exports. In Trade and protectionism (pp. 183-222). University of Chicago Press.
Nelson, R.R., & Edmund, S.P. Phelps (1966). “Investment in Humans, Technological Diffusion, and Economic Growth,” American Economic Review, 56, 2(May), 69–75.
Norgaard, R. B. (1992). Sustainability and the economics of assuring assets for future generations (Vol. 832). World Bank Publications.
Ojo, A. T., & Alege, P. O. (2014). Exchange Rate Fluctuations and Macroeconomic Performance in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Dynamic Panel Cointegration Analysis. Asian Economic and Social Society, 4(11), 1573-1591. Retrieved from http://eprints.covenantuniversity. edu. ng/3996/1/EXCHANGE%20 RATE%20 FLUCTUATIONS%20 AND.pdf
Olabisi, M., Tschirley, D. L., Nyange, D., & Awokuse, T. (2021). Does trade protectionism promote domestic food security? Evidence from Tanzanian edible oil imports. Global Food Security, 28, 100470.
Osabuohien, E. S., Beecroft, I., & Efobi, U. R. (2018). Global trade and trade protection in a globalized world. Transnational Corporations Review, 10(1), 43-52. https:// doi.org/10.1080/19186444. 2018.1436650
Park, S. C. (2018). U.S. Protectionism and Trade Imbalance between the U.S. and Northeast Asian Countries. International Organisations Research Journal, 13(2), 76- 100. https://doi. org/10.17323/1996-7845- 2018- 02-05
Park, S. C. (2019). Trade Protectionism as the Achilles Heel of International Cooperation and Countermeasures Focused on the EU-Japan FTA. International Organisations Research Journal, 14(2), 191-222.
Petrakis, P. E. (2020). Theoretical Approaches to Economic Growth and Development. Springer Books.
Ramani, K. V. (1996). An interactive simulation model for the logistics planning of container operations in seaports. Simulation, 66(5), 291-300.
Ricardo, D. (1817). On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, P. Sraffa, ed., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1951.
Roll, Y., & Hayuth, Y. E. H. U. D. A. (1993). Port performance comparison applying data envelopment analysis (DEA). Maritime policy and Management, 20(2), 153-161.
Schularick, M. & Solomou, S. (2011). Tariffs and economic growth in the first era of globalization. Journal of Economic Growth, 16, 33–70.
Shan, J., Yu, M., & Lee, C. Y. (2014). An empirical investigation of the seaport’s economic impact: evidence from major ports in China. Transport Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 69, 41–53.
Shao, W. M. (1995). Is There No Business Like Show Business-Free Trade and Cultural Protectionism. Yale Journal of International Law, 20, 105.
Supply Chain Brain. (2021). Impact of the US-China Trade War on Global Supply Chains. Retrieved April 18, 2021, from https://www. supplychainbrain.com/articles/30554-im¬pact-of-the-us-china-trade-war-on-global-supply-chains?v=preview
Supply Chain Digital. (2021). Turbulent Times in 2019: The Year of the Supply Chain. Re¬trieved April 17, 2021, from https://www. supplychaindigital.com/supply-chain-man¬agement/turbulent-times-2019-year-supply-chain
Supply Chain Quarterly. (2019). The Top 10 Supply Chain Risks of 2019: Second Quarter; CSCMP: Massachusetts, MA, USA, 2019.
Sykes, A. O. (1999). Regulatory protectionism and the law of international trade. The University of Chicago Law Review, 1-46.
Taljaard, S., Slinger, J. H., Arabi, S., Weerts, S. P., & Vreugdenhil, H. (2021). The natural environment in port development: A ‘green handbrake’or an equal partner?. Ocean & Coastal Management, 199, 105390.
The Asian Banker. (2021) US-China Trade War Highlights Shifting Global Terrain for Financial Services. Retrieved April 18, 2021, from http://www.theasianbanker. com/updates-and-articles/us-china-trade-war-highlights-shifting-globalterrain-for-financial-services
Trachtman, J. P. (1993). International regulatory competition, externalization, and jurisdiction. Harvard International Law Journal, 34, 47.
Tsapi, V. (2020, April). Flow Management Tools and Techniques for Logistics Performance: An Application to the Logistics Service Sector in Cameroon. In Dynamics in Logistics: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference LDIC 2020, Bremen, Germany (pp. 148). Springer Nature.
UNCTAD. (2020) Review of maritime transport. United Nations conference on trade and development. United Nations Publication, Geneva.
Wang, M. (2018). Impacts of supply chain uncertainty and risk on the logistics performance. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 30(3), 689-704.
Wang, Q., Cheng, F., Xue, J., Xiao, N., & Wu, H. (2020). Bacterial community composition and diversity in the ballast water of container ships arriving at Yangshan Port, Shanghai, China. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 160, 111640.
Wang, Y., & Wang, N., (2019). The role of the port industry in China’s national economy: an input–output analysis. Transport Policy, 78, 1–7.
Wessel, J., (2019). Evaluating the transport-mode-specific trade effects of different transport infrastructure types. Transport Policy, 78, 42–57.
Williams Iii, R. C. (1999). Revisiting the cost of protectionism: The role of tax distortions in the labor market. Journal of International Economics, 47(2), 429-447.
Yochum G. R., & Agarwal V. B. (1987) Economic impact of a port on a regional economy: note. Growth Change, 18(3),74– 87.
Yudhistira, M. H., & Sofiyandi, Y. (2018). Seaport status, port access, and regional economic development in Indonesia. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 20(4), 549-568.
Zhao, C., Wang, Y., Gong, Y., Brown, S., & Li, R. (2021). The evolution of the port network along the Maritime Silk Road: From a sustainable development perspective. Marine Policy, 126, 104426.
Ziesemer, T. (2021). Labour-augmenting technical change data for alternative elasticities of substitution, growth, slowdown, and distribution dynamics (No. 2021-003). United Nations University-Maastricht Economic and Social Research Institute on Innovation and Technology (MERIT).
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 PENERBIT UMT
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
