NIGERIA IN THE MINDS OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN PUBLIC TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS: AN EMPIRICAL SURVEY ON THE TRUST DEFICIT IN POLITICAL GOVERNANCE

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Introduction
The trust deficit in political governance among Nigerians has been the subject of increasing attention, particularly due to its rise since the late 1980s.Numerous studies indicate that public trust in government is influenced by economic factors (for example, rising economic inequality), political factors, including scandals and job performance evaluations of elected officials and government institutions (Cohen, 2015), and social conditions such as crime and poverty (Mansbridge et al., 2022).One study found that trust in government explains political attitudes and behaviours.For instance, declining levels of trust affect public evaluations of the government, voting intentions (Kim & Han, 2021), and preferences on a wide variety of issues, including policies on race and healthcare.
There have been ongoing debates on trust in public administration in political science literature.While some studies argue that citizen distrust is destructive, others argue that citizen distrust in political governance is rational (Kumar et al., 2020).The loss of trust among citizens in political governance can have potentially catastrophic consequences as it can lead to loss of confidence in political leaders.The authors of this study align with the viewpoint of Kumar et al. (2020) that citizens' distrust in government is both catastrophic and rational.Regardless of factors such as socioeconomic status, religion, political affiliation, or ethnicity, citizens' loss of trust in government tends to be reasonable.It is, therefore, important to understand the dynamics of political trust and distrust, encompassing the various reasons behind the erosion of trust in governance.
In general, trust can be defined as the expectation that arises within a community of regular, honest, and cooperative behaviour based on shared norms on the part of other members of that community.Therefore, trust is an instrument with which citizens evaluate government policies, programmes, promises, honesty, and justice, as well as politicians.Political trust is based on an individual's evaluation of the political sphere (Godefroidt et al., 2015).Tyler and Jackson (2014), and Jackson and Gau (2016) suggest that trust is fundamental to governmental legitimacy.It affects citizens' attitude towards government information, including their policies and projects (Tolbert & Mossberger, 2006).According to Tyler (2006), legitimacy involves the belief that the authorities are trustworthy, honest, and care about citizens' welfare.As a result, citizens should not only accept their authority, but also voluntarily defer to their decisions and directives.However, when governmental legitimacy is challenged due to a trust deficit, citizens do not automatically defer to government policy directions.Instead, they doubt and question them, and in some cases, blatantly disbelieve them (Uslaner, 2013).The distrust among citizens has a direct impact on the effectiveness of political office holders.
During election periods in Nigeria, politicians, including those vying for political offices, make various campaign promises to citizens, including undergraduate students in tertiary institutions.These undergraduate students are enrolled in colleges of education, polytechnics, and universities throughout the country.They are often used as campaign instruments by politicians to win the trust of citizens.In response to the political trust arising from the campaign promises, undergraduate students form a significant portion of the citizenry who are influenced to vote for these politicians.They are promised quality education, domestic and foreign scholarships, reductions in tuition fees, credit facilities for business start-ups, and immediate employment after service with the National Youth Service Corps, among other commitments.However, some of these promises remain unfulfilled during and after the politicians' tenure in public offices.Considering this context, this study aims to investigate the reasons behind the loss of trust in political among tertiary undergraduate students in Nigeria.Existing research has predominantly focused on the public's distrust and trust in federal, state, and local government institutions across the country.Therefore, the purpose of the study is to examine the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions.
Specifically, this study aims to achieve the following objectives: 1.To investigate the impact of political office holders' performance on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions; 2. To determine the effect of economic inequality on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions; and 3. To investigate the gap between campaign promises and their fulfilment, and its effect on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions.
The following research questions guided this study: 1. Does the level of performance of political office holders affect the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions?
2. What is the effect of economic inequality on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions?
3. What is the impact of the gap between campaign promises and their fulfilment on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions?

Literature Review
A comprehensive review of related empirical studies was conducted for this paper.One of the studies examined was conducted by Kumagai and Iorio (2021), who investigated the process of building trust in the government through citizen engagement as part of the governance global practice's programmatic analytics and advisory service.
In a related study, Godefroidt et al. (2015) developed a model of institutional trust based on insights from both cultural and institutional performance theories.The study's findings strongly supported the superiority of institutional performance theories in explaining institutional trust, while providing limited support for cultural expectations.The study concluded that national pride substantially encourages institutional trust.Adelopo and Rufai (2020) explored the ways in which trust deficit undermines anticorruption initiatives in the context of systemic corruption.The study analysed commentaries from Nigerian netizens on two critical corruption incidents that are significant to corporations.The study revealed poignant narratives highlighting perceptions of incompetence, dishonesty and confusion that undermine anti-corruption measures in that particular context.The study recommended that donors, international organisations and businesses play a role in encouraging and supporting beneficiary governments to secure and sustain trust in anticorruption initiatives, which is seen as crucial for achieving improved outcomes.Kim (2015) conducted a study on an effective government-public relationship building based on a synthetic approach to public segmentation.The study used a national survey dataset to examine variations in trust among different segments of the population towards federal, state, and local governments.The study found that there are different predictors for trust in each level of government.Akinola et al. (2021) conducted a review study that employed a microlevel analysis of public opinion survey data (question by question) to explore the empirical linkages of political trust within Nigeria.The study utilised data from the Afrobarometer Survey Round 4 carried out in 2008.The findings revealed that political trust, or trust in government in Nigeria is influenced by a number of factors, including economic performance, the media, interest in public affairs, religious membership, political participation, interpersonal trust, lack of basic needs, and management of corruption.Notably, interpersonal trust and the government's management of corruption were identified as the most influential factors shaping trust in government.Participants who reported high levels of interpersonal trust and those who perceived that the government was effective in addressing corruption tended to trust the government.The study did not claim to provide all the answers on political trust or trust in government in Nigeria, but it attempted to bridge the gap in the literature on the topic and offer insights for future research.

Materials and Methods
The study employed a descriptive survey research design.This approach is considered appropriate for this study as it aims to investigate the level of performance, economic inequality, and the gap between campaign promises by political leaders and their fulfillment, and their effects on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions.This research design can also provide a comprehensive understanding of the subjects' loss of trust in their political leaders.
The population of this study comprised all first-year, second-year, and final-year undergraduate students enrolled in colleges of education, polytechnics, and universities in Nigeria during the 2021/2022 academic session.These students were selected as they were deemed to be well-suited to assess the trust deficit among Nigerian undergraduate students in their political leaders.
This study had a sample size of 776 undergraduate students from Nigerian colleges of education, polytechnics, and universities.In each category of tertiary institutions, 260 undergraduate students were selected, resulting in a total of 780 initially chosen for this study (Table 1).The study adopted a multi-stage sampling procedure.At the first stage, Osun State was selected through convenience sampling out of the 36 states of Nigeria to facilitate easy accessibility to study participants.The second stage involved purposive selection of two senatorial districts (Osun Central and Osun East).At the third stage, three local government areas, one from the Osun East senatorial district (Ilesa) and two from the Osun Central senatorial district (Boripe and Osogbo) were selected using the simple random sampling technique.At the fourth stage, three tertiary institutions (Osun State College of Education, Ilesa; Osun State Polytechnic, Iree; and Osun State University, Osogbo) were randomly selected from each of the three local government areas.At the fifth stage, two departments (History, Fine and Applied Arts, Computer Science, Physics, Agricultural Science, Biology, Economics, and Political Science) were randomly selected from four faculties or schools of (Arts, Physical Sciences, Sciences, and Social Sciences).This results in a total of eight departments being included in the study.Lastly, at the sixth stage, 97 first-year, second-year, and final-year undergraduate students were randomly selected from each of the eight departments, amounting to a final sample size of 776 undergraduate students for this study.A research instrument titled "Empirical Trust Deficit Survey in Political Governance" was used in the data collection.The instrument consisted of three sections: Section A focused on poor performance by those in power; Section B explored increasing economic inequality; and Section C examined the gap between campaign promises and fulfilment.The instrument consisted of 18 items, with six items in each of the mentioned sections.A five-point Likert scale, ranging from Strongly Disagree (SD, rated 1), Disagree (D, rated 2), Neither Agree nor Disagree (NAD, rated 3), Agree (A, rated 4), and Strongly Agree (SA, rated 5) to score the items.
The instrument underwent a validation process conducted by three experts, comprising one from the Psychology Department and two from the field of educational tests and measurements.To ensure its reliability, the questionnaire was administered to 90 undergraduate students in three private tertiary institutions outside the study area: Assanusiya College of Education in Odeomu, Osun State; INSTITUTIONS: AN EMPIRICAL SURVEY ON THE TRUST DEFICIT IN POLITICAL GOVERNANCE the Polytechnic, Ile-Ife, in Osun State; and Oduduwa University in Ipetumodu, Osun State).The completed questionnaires were collected on the spot, and the responses were compiled, scored, and coded using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26.The internal consistency reliability for the instrument was determined using the Cronbach's Alpha method, yielding a coefficient of 0.78 for "Empirical Trust Survey in Political Governance" .This coefficient indicated a satisfactory level of internal consistency for the study.
Subsequently, the instrument was administered to participating undergraduate students in their respective institutions, with the help of four research assistants who had received two weeks of training on research conduct and ethics prior to the fieldwork.Before administering the instrument, the researchers obtained the informed consent from the heads of departments of the participating students.Throughout the administration process, the research assistants were supervised to ensure the maintenance of an adequate testing environment.Descriptive statistics, specifically simple percentages were used to address all the three research questions.

Results and Discussion
Research Question One: Does the level of performance of political office holders affect the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions?
To answer this research question, responses to items regarding trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions were coded and scored using SPSS version 26.The scoring system assigned a value of 1 for "Strongly Disagree (SD)", 2 for "Disagree (D)", 3 for "Neither Agree nor Disagree (NAD)", 4 for "Agree (A)", and 5 for "Strongly Agree (SA)".The scores were then analysed using simple percentages as a descriptive statistical measure.The findings regarding the effect of the level of performance of political office holders on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions are presented in Table 2.  To address this research question, the same scoring format, SPSS version, and analytical method used for the first research question were applied.The responses of undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions regarding the effect of economic inequality on their trust deficit in political governance are summarised in Table 3.The results as presented in Table 3 show that 42.7% (331 participants) neither agreed nor disagreed; 27.2% (211 participants) neither agreed nor disagreed and 28.1% (218 participants) agreed; 29.8% (231 participants) strongly disagreed and 41.1% (319 participants) disagreed; 39.9% (309 participants) agreed and 40.2% (312 participants) strongly agreed; 41.4% (321 participants) neither agreed nor disagreed; and 27.2% (211 participants) agreed and 69.1% (536 participants) in response to items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively.Items with a response percentage below 25.8% (200 participants) were rejected as not significantly contributing to the loss of trust in political governance among the undergraduates.Hence, it can be concluded that undergraduate students in Nigeria neither agreed nor disagreed that economic inequality contributes to their distrust in political governance.
Research Question Three: What is the impact of the gap between campaign promises and their fulfilment on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions?
To answer this research question, the same scoring method, SPSS version, and analytical approach used for the first and second research questions were employed.The responses of undergraduate students in Nigeria on the gap between campaign promises and fulfilment on their trust deficit in political governance are presented in Table 4. Corruption, involving bribery, money laundering, misappropriation of funds, along with the accumulation of wealth by Nigerian leaders have also been found to exacerbate this trust deficit.This finding is consistent with Akinola et al. (2021), who also emphasized the influence of religious membership, political participation, and corruption management on political trust in Nigeria.
The findings from the second research question indicate that economic inequality is not perceived as the primary determinant of distrust in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigeria.The state of healthcare is a clear reflection of economic inequality in the country.A significant number of public and private hospitals in Nigeria are in a poor state, and most politicians opt to seek medical treatment overseas.A similar pattern can be seen in education, as politicians often send their children abroad to receive quality education while schools in Nigeria suffer from inadequate resources and precarious conditions.Furthermore, the findings highlight the power imbalance between the underprivileged in Nigeria, and influential politicians and wealthy individuals in the country, in which the voices and views of the poor are not adequately represented in the political system.As a result, they feel reluctant to participate in politics, whether through voting or seeking office.These findings differ from previous studies by Tyler and Jackson (2014), and Jackson and Gau (2016) who found that trust is paramount to governental legitimacy.According to Tyler (2006), legitimacy hinges upon the belief that those in power are trustworthy, honest and care about citizens' welfare.
The findings from the third research question three reveal a significant negative gap between the campaign promises made by Nigerian politicians and their subsequent fulfilment.This discrepancy has led to a trust deficit among undergraduate students in tertiary institutions.It was found that that more than 60% of the campaign promises made by the current administration, covering the period from 2015 to 2023, remained fulfilled even as late as 2022, seven years into its tenure.Furthermore, the findings indicate that Nigerian political often make campaign promises without sufficient knowledge on how to fulfil them.These findings confirm the study by Uslaner (2013), who posited that when the government's authority is challenged due to a loss of trust, citizens respond by doubting and questioning the government's credibility, and in some cases, outright disbelieve them.
In summary, it can be concluded that low level of performance by political office holders, and the disparity between campaign promises and their fulfilment are determinants of the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students of Nigerian tertiary institutions.

Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusion of this study, the following recommendations are proposed: 1.The government should prioritise addressing issues related to security, political and religious challenges, corruption, and economic matters, including unemployment, per capita income, and provision of welfare to the most vulnerable citizens.These issues should be tackled from the grassroots level.
2. There should be equal access to healthcare services, quality education, and the right to vote and be voted should be ensured for all citizens, including political leaders, in Nigeria.This means that schools, hospitals, and other humanitarian institutions in the country should not be neglected while politicians seek better services abroad for themselves or their families.
3. Within the context of Nigerian political governance, there should be a robust monitoring mechanism in place to ensure that at least 60% of campaign promises are fulfilled.Assessment of the fulfilments should be carried out during, before or at the end of a particular administration.

Table 1 :
Sample selection format from the first stage to fifth stage Source: Author's sample selection format

Table 2 :
The effect of the level of performance of political office holders on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions

Table 3 :
The effect of economic inequality on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions Universiti Malaysia Terengganu Journal of Undergraduate ResearchVolume 5 Number 1, January 2023: 1-10

Table 4 :
The impact of the gap between campaign promises and their fulfilment on the trust deficit in political governance among undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary institutions INSTITUTIONS: AN EMPIRICAL SURVEY ON THE TRUST DEFICIT IN POLITICAL GOVERNANCE Universiti Malaysia Terengganu Journal of Undergraduate ResearchVolume 5 Number 1, January 2023: 1-10